# Kent's Korner



## Woody

Kent will be submitting articles to this forum as time allows. – Some will be articles written for major hunting publications while others will be one of a kind offerings

My thanks to Kent for his time.


Article #1

AUSTRIAN WINTER PEA (Pisum sativus)
By:  Kent Kammermeyer


Origin/Description
	Austrian winter peas, sometimes called “black pea” and “field pea” may be the ultimate cool season “ice cream plant” for deer, ranking very high on deer preference lists.  It is an annual legume with very good nitrogen fixing capabilities.  This, and related pea species are native to the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia.
	Austrian winter pea is a low-growing viny legume, which can fix over 200 lbs/acre/year of nitrogen under good conditions.  It has hollow, slender, and succulent stems, two to four feet long.  Foliage is pale green, and the flowers are colored, usually purple, pink or reddish.  The leaf consists of one to three pairs of leaflets and terminal branched tendrils.  Pods are 1.5 to 2.5 inches long with three to five round, dark colored seeds.  Seed color is commonly gray with purple or brown mottles.  Seed size is larger with test weights of 55 to 60 lbs/bushel.
Adaptation/Establishment
	As its name implies, Austrian winter pea has good winter hardiness and can be successfully grown in the entire U.S. and parts of Canada.  However, during severe winters, when the small pea plants are exposed to long periods of sub-zero weather without snow cover, they may be winter killed.  The winter pea can also be grown spring-seeded as a summer annual in the northern half of its range and maybe even further south.  Normal planting dates are August to October (moving north to south).  The pea is somewhat slow staring and vulnerable to overgrazing.  Broadcast plant at 30-40 lbs/acre and cover one-half to one inch deep.  Be sure to inoculate with Rhizobia bacteria specific to peas (Type C), and apply 300 lbs/acre 0-20-20 fertilizer incorporated well into the soil.  Austrian winter pea is sensitive to acid soil and grows well in a pH of 6.0-7.5.  Production can be 3,000-4,000 lbs/acre forage.  It maintains extremely high quality foliage and stem with protein levels in the 25-30% range (very similar to white clover).  They grow best on loam or clay-loam soils although they will do well on sand with adequate rainfall.
Varieties/Management
	Related subspecies include Granger and Sioux.  Several varieties of lentils are also closely related to Austrian winter peas.  For deer management, stick with the original.  With Austrian winter peas, more so than any other cool season deer food plot plant, it is important to ask yourself the question, “What is the main purpose of this food plot?”  If the answer is to attract and harvest deer in this plot in the fall, then these peas should be an integral part of your planting program.  However, you should also be cautioned that these peas are quite vulnerable to overgrazing and kill-out, especially in small plots.  Again, for this reason and others, I would never recommend planting Austrian winter peas in a pure stand.  There are many possible combinations for mixtures including ladino clover (five lbs/acre), red clover (five lbs/acre), wheat (50 lbs/acre) and Austrian winter peas (20 lbs/acre).  Austrian winter peas (25 lbs/acre) can also be planted separately with rye (50 lbs/acre), oats (50 lbs/acre), arrowleaf clover (10 lbs/acre), crimson clover (10 lbs/acre), and ryegrass (15 lbs/acre).
	Austrian winter peas are especially suited to no-till drilling into stands weakened by cold weather or killed with glyphosate.  These include bahia grass, crabgrass, Bermuda grass, browntop millet, jointvetch, alyce clover, soybeans, and cowpeas.  When drilling in the fall, mix 20 lbs/acre Austrian winter peas with 25 lbs/acre wheat or rye and drill one inch deep.  The small grains will try to act as a nurse crop, which in bigger fields and lower deer populations may allow the Austrian winter peas to escape overgrazing.  Fertilize with 300 lbs/acre 19-19-19 for best results.
	Back in late December, I went out to one of my Austrian winter pea mixtures to get photos of the peas.  The mix was planted in early September and included 50 lbs/acre wheat, 10 lbs/acre crimson clover, 10 lbs/acre hairy vetch and 10 lbs/acre Austrian winter peas.  The field was only one-fourth acre.  At last check in November, everything was doing fine.  However, this December trip would yield no Austrian winter pea photos – they were gone!  There was light to moderate grazing on the wheat, clover, and vetch, but the deer had selectively knocked out the Austrian winter peas over the course of less than a month.  I do not have a high deer population on my property (25-30/square mile).  Oh well, this experience reinforces the value of mixtures anyway!


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## Woody

Article #2

APPLES FOR DEER
By:  Kent Kammermeyer


	Nothing remains static.  I evolved from growing apples for people 15 years ago to growing apples for wildlife today.  What’s the difference?  Its huge.  My home orchard in 1986 had Lodi, Golden Delicious and Red Delicious apple trees.  Today at a new site, I don’t have an orchard, more like a few small groupings of 3 or 4 trees each of Yates, Arkansas Black, Limbertwig and others.  Believe me, if you use the right varieties, its much easier to grow apples for deer (and you can eat some too!) than it is for people.  Instead of spraying insecticides and fungicides every 10 days on people varieties, my current worries with growing apples for deer are limited to droughts (very tough on young seedlings) and beavers (very tough on all trees).
Origin/Description
	Apples are in the same family as roses.  There are over 7,000 varieties of apples in the world and over 2,500 in the U.S.  Many came from Canada or New Zealand but some are native to the U.S.  Climate and selecting the proper variety are more important than soil in determining where apples will grow successfully.  They do well between Georgia and New Mexico, Maine and Wisconsin and the southern parts of Canada (apples need 900-1,000 hours below 45o to flower and fruit properly but severe cold (-45o or colder will kill them).  Top apple states are Washington, New York, California, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Virginia.  There is an ongoing controversy among deer biologists whether apples are just “ice cream” or “candy” in the diet of deer versus an important component of the fall diet.  I believe the latter.  With production of more than 800 lbs/tree and an analysis of 22 grams of carbohydrates and 16 grams of sugar (80 calories) average per apple, the impact of only 8 or 10 trees can be significant to a local deer herd.  Besides, they make an excellent place to bow hunt or gun hunt.
Varieties/Establishment
	Use adapted varieties and avoid bargains!  Never buy wildlife apple trees from a supermarket or discount chain store.  Check with your local county extension agent or wildlife biologist for best varieties adapted to your areas.  A smart plan is to select varieties that mature in early season (July-August), mid-season (September) and late-season (October) to have a constant supply even into winter.  However, emphasize late season varieties for deer that hang on limbs longer, resist rot, and persist into winter.  Always plant disease resistant varieties, never plant the following for wildlife unless you love to do a lot of chemical spraying:  Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, McIntosh, Idared, Jonathan, Granny Smith, Jonagold, Rome or Crispin.  Do plant the following disease resistant varieties if they are adapted to your area:  Liberty (very resistant to disease, good eating), Limbertwig (late-very good keeper), Freedom, Jonamac, Macoun (mid-season, excellent eating), Keepsake, Enterprise, Williams Pride, Gold Rush, Burgandy, Arkansas Black (late season, good keeper, great eating), horse apple (early, yellow, tart), Padukah (early, very hardy), Yates (late, small, good keeper, good eating).  Whatever your choice, most varieties need to be grouped (3 or 4 trees, 15 feet apart) with other varieties for best cross-pollination.  Fall planting (November or December) is practical in the South; very early spring (as soon as ground is dry enough to work) works best in the North.  Always plant apple trees in full sunlight.  Pick a spot with good air drainage, neither on a wind-blown hilltop nor in a frost pocket valley.  Dig a large hole; add lime (if needed) but not manure or fertilizer.  Put topsoil in bottom of hole, bring in good soil or potting soil, if needed.  Water thoroughly and pack soil firmly.  Use semi-dwarf or standard size trees for deer - dwarf trees are too vulnerable to browsing.  Immediately protect newly planted seedlings with plastic tree shelters to prevent browsing and possible antler rubbing.  As trees mature, swiwtch to wire cages to protect from antler rubbing.
Management
	For deer, no need to prune much, especially in early years.  The tree should be trained in the first year or two to develop into its proper shape.  Prune in late winter or early spring.  Summer pruning of small twigs helps keep tree size down.  Beginning with the second year, apply fertilizer annually about two weeks before bloom.  Use 10-10-10 at 1 lbs/tree multiplied by the number of years the tree has been set but never more than 6 lbs per tree.  Scatter fertilizer under the outer parts of the branches.
	Keep woody and herbaceous competition away from trees using mechanical means or chemicals.  Having selected the correct varieties, you should not have to deal with fireblight, apple scab or powdery mildew.  You will still have to watch for bad insect infestations by coddling moth, tent caterpillars, aphids, mites and borers.  In some cases, insecticides may be necessary.
	In summary, choosing the correct variety goes a long way toward winning the apple wars.  Other key factors for success include tree shelters, air drainage, fertilizer (beginning in second year), group planting, and conservative pruning.  By the way, there are no rules against eating a few apples yourself!


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## Woody

Article #3

ACORNS AND DEER
By:  Kent Kammermeyer

Introduction

	Any deer hunter knows that oak trees are of major importance to both man and wildlife in the U.S.  There are 54 to 85 species (they tend to crossbreed, driving the taxonomists crazy) native to the U.S.  Oaks are widely distributed over the country but are scarce or absent in the northern prairies.  They thrive at different altitudes and in many different soil types.
Importance
	Acorns rate a position at the top of the wildlife food list with usage by over 100 species of animals.  White-tailed deer use of acorns has been documented in many studies with acorns composing as high as 52% of the diet in Texas and up to 50% in Missouri and Alabama.  Wherever acorns and deer occur together they are an important food item.
	Acorns contain a relatively low protein level (6%) but are high in fat and carbohydrates at maturity in the fall when deer and other animals need fat to over-winter in a healthy condition.
	Acorns have been repeatedly tied to deer abundance, body weight, antler development and even over-winter survival.  Deer populations exposed to acorn failure followed by a harsh winter are much more subject to mortality than acorn abundance followed by a harsh winter.  Studies in the Southern Appalachians found acorn abundance linked to deer harvest, fall body weight in the year of the crop and the year after, as well as antler production and reproduction in the year after the crop.
Production and Variation
	One study in North Carolina showed average production of well-developed acorns ranged from 6,600 per acre per year to 94,600 per acre per year.  The quality of acorns produced is as important as the quantity produced.  On the average, only 2 of 3 acorns were fully developed.  Of those fully developed, the number of sound and undamaged acorns varied from 11% to 73%.  Production of sound acorns on 2/3-acre plots ranged from 0 to 145,400!  Acorns were damaged by insects (mostly weevils), birds and squirrels, and were imperfectly developed, deformed or aborted.  Late spring freezes, poor bloom, and lack of pollination are other important factors affecting the size of the acorn crop each year.
Groups
	Oaks are divided into 2 groups, red oak and white oak.  Major differences between groups are that the white oak group blooms and produces a mature acorn in the same year while red oaks bloom and produce a mature acorn in the second year.  The white oak group has rounded leaf margins (lobes) contrasted to pointed lobes with a bristle on the tips of red oak leaves.  There are other important differences too numerous to detail here.  The white oak group includes white oak, swamp white oak, chestnut oak, post oak, live oak and others.  The red oak group includes northern red oak, southern red oak, scarlet oak, black oak, water oak, willow oak and others.  An important non-native species is sawtooth oak, a member of the red oak group from China, which has been imported and widely planted in the Southern U.S. Sawtooth oak produces at an early age(7+ years), drops acorns early, and rarely fails.
	Due to lower tannic acid, white oaks are generally more preferred by deer than red oaks.  Sawtooth oak is a notable exception to this, reported to be equally as preferred as white oak.
	The importance of oak diversity is unmistakable.  Red and white oaks (probably due to the one year difference in time to maturity) rarely fail in the same year.  Consequently, the 2 groups often buffer each other year after year, preventing a total failure of both groups in the same year.  This is important because of the wildly fluctuating nature of acorn production.
Acorn Management
	Maintain diversity of oak species as explained above.  Manage oak stands for large crown diameter and air movement around crowns.  Peak production age for oaks is usually 50-100 years of age.  Select cut to release oaks from surrounding competition such as hickory, white pine, gums, poplar or maple.
	Finally, while not proven by research, fertilization of individual trees may help increase acorn production.  A complete fertilizer (such as 10-10-10) broadcast underneath mature oaks evenly out to the dripline at the rate of 2 lbs per inch of diameter at breast height (dbh) in the month of March (south) or April (north) may increase acorn production.  Individual oaks located around lawns, pastures, croplands, and other fertilized areas have long been noted for heavier, more consistent heavier acorn production, although other factors (such as insects or air circulation around crowns) may be involved.
Summary
	Though inconsistent and unpredictable, acorns make up a very important component of the fall and winter diet of whitetails.  This is especially true where diversity of oak species among both white and red oak groups is high.  Although white oaks as a whole are more palatable to deer, red oaks appear to be more consistent producers on a year to year basis.  Both are extremely important components of a serious deer management program.


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## Woody

Article #4 

OATS(Avena sativa)
By:  Kent Kammermeyer


Description/Establishment
	Oats may be the best of 5 annual small grains grown in the U.S. Oats average about 3 ft. tall and have mainly been grown for grain, pasture, hay, or silage.  Oats can produce 1-4 tons per acre of high quality (10-20% protein), cool season forage that is highly digestible (60%). In palatability tests using horses, oats were consistently selected above ryegrass, rye, wheat or triticale. Similar tests with deer have been inconclusive. 
	Oats are sensitive to cold, so the Southeast and Pacific Coast are the only areas where oats should be planted in the fall.  Early spring plantings can be successful over the entire U.S. where moisture conditions are favorable. They can be frost-seeded into tilled soil or no till drilled as long as there is adequate soil moisture and good seed to soil contact.  Drill at 1” to 1½” depths. Oats tolerate heavy grazing but are not tolerant of poor drainage or drought. Oats have excellent seedling vigor but are sensitive to pH and fertility. Your pH needs to be corrected to above 6.0. Fertilize at planting according to soil test with a complete fertilizer. Despite their high quality and production, I recommend mixing oats with another grain or preferably legumes.  This guards against possible freeze-outs, saves on nitrogen (N) bills, and adds to the quality and longevity of the planting.  My favorite oat mixes (drilled) are oats (30 lbs/acre), red clover (5 lbs/acre) and arrowleaf clover (5 lbs/acre) in the South and oats (30 lbs/acre), red clover (5 lbs/acre) and white clover (3 lbs/acre) in the North. Drill rates are roughly doubled when seed is broadcast.  Best time to plant is either September or late February–early March in the South and April in the North.
Varieties/Management
	Oat mixes will be heavily used by deer as soon as they germinate until well into mid-spring. By mid to late summer, oat seeds mature and are eaten by deer and turkey along with the clover.  However, oats has a tough husk, which protects the seed, and many of them should remain uneaten by late summer.  In late August, mow the oat/clover mixes close to the ground.  Depending on the vigor and percent cover of the clovers, oats will usually reseed after late summer rains and produce a second or even third year mixed stand of oats and clover.  Even if the oats winterkill, they will have provided high quality fall grazing and you will be left with a pure clover stand … not a bad deal at all!
	Unless you live in the Deep South or coastal areas, the main thing to look for in selecting oats for deer is cold tolerance.  Several Southern varieties have been successfully selected for cold tolerance, including the popular Arkansas 833, Arkansas 604, Rodgers, Harrison and Chapman. Spring oats performing well in Pennsylvania trials include, but are not limited to, Blaze, Rodeo, Jay, Armor, Judd, and Chaps.  Ask your county extension agent, wildlife biologist, or seed dealer for suggestions on oat varieties suited to your area.


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## Woody

Article #5

American Jointvetch
By:  Kent Kammermeyer

Origin/Description
	American jointvetch (Aeschynomene americana) is a warm season annual legume native to the deep Southeast.  There is great confusion surrounding this plant since it is not a vetch nor is it a cool season forage as are other vetches.  Moreover, it is commonly referred to by at least 3 different names including aeschynomene, jointvetch, and deervetch.  There are 2 or 3 closely related species, including one which is considered endangered, Sensitive jointvetch (A. virginica) and one which is recommended for seeding in bahiagrass pastures in Florida (A. evenia).  This article concentrates on American jointvetch which is a vigorous erect annual legume with pinnately compound leaves attaining a height of 3-6 feet.
Adaptation/Uses
	Jointvetch is most adapted to wet soils in Coastal tropics or subtropics.  It tolerates low fertility and moderately acid pH (5.5 to 6.0).  Although erect and tall when not grazed, it develops a branched prostate habit under grazing.  In recent years, many wildlife managers have found out that jointvetch is much more widely adaptable than once believed.  It has also prospered on dry upland sites in Mountain, Piedmont, and well-drained sandy soils.  It is one of the few warm season legumes which is highly palatable(20-25% crude protein) but can withstand heavy grazing pressure by deer and this is probably its greatest asset.  If it flowers and produces hard seed before frost, it is possible to get natural reseeding the following spring.  Heavy deer grazing, however, may keep it from going to seed in adequate numbers before frost. 
Establishment/Mixtures
	Jointvetch can be planted beginning in April in the deep South through May and June in virtually the entire Eastern U.S.  It may not be a good choice to plant in the more drought prone areas of the Central and Western U.S. Broadcast rate is 20 lbs/acre and like all legumes, seed must be inoculated at planting.  Cover seed ¼ to ½ inch deep and fertilize with 300 lbs/acre of 0-20-20.
	Jointvetch can be successfully mixed with other summer forages for an effective warm season food plot.  Alyce clover (not a true clover) is also resistant to overgrazing and can be successfully mixed with jointvetch with a seeding rate of 10 lbs/acre each.  Both are highly nutritious and palatable to deer and both provide excellent brood rearing habitat for quail and wild turkeys.  As stated in the last issue of Quality Whitetails (Vol. 7, #1, p.30), jointvetch can be very successfully mixed with grain sorghum as long as the seeding rate of sorghum is kept low at 5 lbs/acre or less, to keep from shading out the jointvetch.  Apply more nitrogen and potassium fertilizer when grain sorghum is used.
Management
	According to QDMA founder Joe Hamilton, one of the best uses of jointvetch occurs in intensive pine management where it can be planted between pine rows after a row thinning or in firebreaks.  Being quite shade tolerant, it will do especially well in these narrow strips or breaks if they are limed (usually 1-2 tons per acre) and fertilized with 300 lbs/acre of 0-20-20. Jointvetch is very responsive to phosphorus.  There may be enough seed production each year to regenerate the stand, however, it will probably not be dependable enough to count on.
Jointvetch is one of the few warm season legumes which can withstand deer grazing pressure in small fields enough to reach maturity and provide high quality grazing all summer long, especially during the late summer stress period.  While it is well adapted to wet soils, it has proven highly adaptable even withstanding moderate drought conditions on shallow upland soils. Commercial seed sources are relatively easy to find, especially in the Southeast.
Varieties
     Glenn jointvetch is a variety from Australia which was originally collected on the coast of Mexico. It does well in low-lying coastal country subject to periodic waterlogging. It also grows on well-drained soils receiving > 50” rainfall.
     Lee perennial jointvetch (also from Australia) is noted for more green leaf earlier, and later than annual jointvetches. It is also suited to seasonally wet tropics with > 40” rainfall. For more information on these varieties, contact Barenbrug USA at (888) 298-7112.


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## Woody

Article #6

CORN
By:  Kent Kammermeyer


	For whitetails, it doesn’t get any better than corn (Zea mays).  Find the top of a deer’s preference list and corn will be there, especially in fall and winter.  Its no wonder, the nutritional value of corn is well established and documented, especially by the cattle folks.  What corn lacks in protein (5 to 8%) it makes up for it in fat (2 grams/cup) and carbohydrates (30 grams/cup).  Some deer folks chose to feed corn by the bag, others chose to grow it for deer.  This article is for the latter.
	Before you jump on the corn bandwagon, a word of caution is in order.  Corn is used by over 100 species of wildlife, many of which can decimate a small cornfield before deer even find it.  I know, its happened to my sweet corn patch repeatedly.  These include, raccoons, crows, squirrels, opossums, beavers, and blackbirds.  Also, corn is drought prone, has high fertility requirements, and needs chemical weed control for best results.  Nevertheless, if you want the best for deer, you have the equipment, and you can get it past the other critters (using big fields of 3 acres and larger), then go for it in your deer food plot.
Establishment
	Find your best soils, bottomland is best, flatter uplands will do.  Droughts are hard on corn, soil moisture is critical, especially during tasseling and silking stage.  Plant in March (in the deep south), April (further north) or May (really north) when your soil temperature reaches 60oF or above.  Measure the temperature at a depth of one inch at 7:00 AM.  Corn will germinate slowly at 55oF.  Corn can be planted by conventional plowing and planting in rows, broadcast planting in prepared seedbed, or no-till drilling into dead mulch.  For best yield, corn plants need to be 7-12 inches apart which usually translates into 5-10 lbs per acre in rows.  Broadcast rate would be 10-15 lbs per acre.  Conventional row planting is recommended for best results.  Plant 1-2 inches deep, deep planting does not result in a deep root system.  Germination occurs in 6-10 days.  Plenty of fertilizer is needed.  For 100 bushels per acre yield, depending on your native soil fertility, you probably need 100 lbs/acre Nitrogen, about 50 lbs/acre Phosphorus and about 50 lbs/acre Potash.  This translates to 300 lbs/acre 19-19-19 at planting and an additional application of 100-150 lbs/acre ammonium nitrate about 4 weeks later.  Corn will mature in about 70-120 days, depending upon variety planted.
Varieties/Mixtures/Management
	If you plan to eat some of your corn patch yourself, then obviously use sweet corn varieties that suit your palate, even the super sweets, or sugar enhanced varieties.  But if you do this, count on lots of damage from off-target species like raccoons and beavers who obviously prefer sweet corn.  Otherwise, you would be better advised to use field corn, cow corn, or any variety suited for cattle feed.  Don’t use white corn or silage corn varieties.
	If you expect high yields, some kind of weed control will be necessary.  Atrazine is a common, effective chemical for weed control in corn, which can be pre-plant incorporated or applied post-emergent with boom sprayers.  There are many other herbicides approved for use on corn.  If chemicals are not used, you can cultivate your corn at about 4 weeks after germination, the same time you apply your second dose of ammonium nitrate.
	If you don’t have the planting equipment, then you will obviously have to broadcast your corn seed and fertilizer.  If you do this, I recommend thinning the corn rate down to 5-7 lbs/acre and mixing with 5 lbs/acre of a tall, bird-resistant grain sorghum (such as KS989).  This will give you 2 advantages:  1) two-tiered shade for better weed control, and 2) a buffer crop in case of drought, depredation or insect damage to the corn.  Grain sorghum is a close relative of corn and provides similar nutritional value.
	Bigger fields are by far better.  Your fields are too small when you lose newly planted corn seed to crows, turkeys, squirrels, or skunks scratching, pulling or digging up the kernels.  There is also a cumulative learning effect when corn is grown in the same small fields for several years.  There are commercial crow repellent applications available to treat corn seed before planting.
	In summary, corn also known as “golden acorns” is a great crop for deer if you can pull it off successfully.  I have grown it for 20 years and have had good years and bad.  In the good years, your corn should last at least into early winter before being entirely consumed.  When this happens, your deer will surely be fat and sassy!


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## Woody

Article #7

COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata)
By:  Kent Kammermeyer

Origin/Description
	Cowpea, also known as Iron Clay Pea and Blackeyed Pea, is a warm season legume that came to the U.S. from Ethiopia.  It is an annual, though it can potentially be a strong re-seeder.  Cowpea is known for its viney, weak stems, large triangular shaped leaves, yellow bloom and curved pods.  If there ever was a warm season “ice cream” plant for deer, cowpeas would be a top contender.  As a matter of fact, it is so palatable to deer it is often immediately over-grazed and killed out by deer in small and medium sized fields.  There are some ways to prevent this (discussed in the Management section).
Adaptation/Establishment
	Cowpeas can be grown in the entire U.S., but its greatest area of adaptation is central and southern U.S. since warm soil is needed for germination and maturity of peas is in 90 to 100 days.  Consequently, in the majority of the country, cowpeas can be planted from May to August.  August planted peas (if not killed by overgrazing) will provide forage in September and October but will not have time to go to seed.
	Cowpeas are tolerant of drought, low fertility, and soil acidity but do better in the pH range of 5.5 to 7.0.  Cowpeas need good drainage.  Seeds are planted in rows (drilled) at 40 to 60 lbs/acre or broadcast at 60 to 90 lbs/acre.  For best production, inoculate with fresh pea inoculant (ask your seed dealer for the correct bacteria culture for peas) and a complete fertilizer such as 19-19-19 at 200 lbs/acre.
Varieties/Management
	Due to its vulnerability to overgrazing, cowpeas must be carefully watched and managed.  In one study in east Texas, cowpeas showed a markedly higher utilization than lab lab in July, August and September.  Even at very low deer densities, deer utilized cowpeas heavily (76-96%) and exhibited a preference over lab lab.  Of the common varieties of cowpeas (Thorsby, Cream Tory, Wilcox, Iron Clay, and Catjang), Catjang reportedly exhibits a little more deer resistance in the early seedling stage.  This is one way to increase longevity of a cowpea planting for deer.  Once the pea gets past about 30 days, it is somewhat resistant to grazing pressure and will show resilient re-growth.  Other ways of protecting cowpea plantings include planting in large fields and/or protecting with repellent-soaked rope fence or high visibility electric portable fence.  A one-strand rope fence at 30-inch height saturated in a tub of Deer Stopper, Deer Off, or Hinder has been shown to be effective in repelling deer.  Simply take down the fence after peas have become well established.
	An electric fence works in a similar fashion, one strand of high visibility polytape (one and one-half inches wide) strung at 30 inches height.  Before first plug-in, mix a slurry of peanut butter and cooking oil and walk the fence dabbing the mixture on the polytape at three to six foot intervals.  Deer will receive a memorable shock to the nose or tongue. Take down the fence after about 45-60 days to allow grazing.
	Finally, planting cowpeas mixed with other plants is extra insurance against a crop failure caused by overgrazing.  Thin the planting rate to 25 lbs/acre and plant with grain sorghum (five lbs/acre), corn (10 lbs/acre), alyce clover (15 lbs/acre), or browntop millet (20 lbs/acre).  Cowpeas can also be mixed with perdovic sunflower (25 lbs/acre) or buckwheat (25 lbs/acre) but remember that all three of these are vulnerable to deer overgrazing.
	For a bowhunting plot, plant a mixture of cowpeas (20 lbs/acre), buckwheat (20 lbs/acre) and buck forage oats (50 lbs/acre) in August (north) or September (south).  Frost and deer grazing will get the cowpeas and buckwheat but the oats will overwinter in the southern half of U.S. providing a bonus of late winter and early spring grazing.


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## Woody

Article #8

CRABAPPLES FOR DEER
By:  Kent Kammermeyer


Origin/Description

	Crabapples (Malus sp.) include about 25 species of deciduous trees or shrubs native to the temperate regions of North America, Europe, and Asia.  With slender, upright branches, they vary from a large shrub-like plant (6 to 8 ft.) to a medium tree (15 to 35 ft).  Flowers vary from white, pink, or red and appear from mid-April to early June, depending on location.  Apples are red, yellow or yellow-green up to 1” in diameter.
Adaptation/Establishment
	Crabapples grow best on medium to heavy soils that are well-drained, moist and acid soils (pH 5.5-6.5) of valleys, lower slopes, stream banks, woodland borders, fencerows, and old fields.  Full sun is preferred to enhance development of flowers and fruit, but they will tolerate light shade and make a reduced crop of fruit.  Various species and varieties of crabapples are adapted to all but the coldest areas of the Northeast, Midwest, Southeast and Pacific Northwest.
	Crabapples are easy to establish if done properly.  They should not be planted into living sod.  Fall or early spring plantings should be made into weed-free locations that are 2 feet larger in radius than the seedlings.  Do not fertilize during the establishment year.  Prune off all side branches that are not desired for permanent limbs, and provide protection from rabbits and deer in the form of a tree shelter, wire cage or electric fence.  For a hedgerow, space plants 10 ft. apart.  Mulching with hay, wood shavings, grass clippings, etc. helps maintain moisture and control weeds.  Weeds must be controlled for the first 2 years.  Once crabapples become well established, little care is required.
Recommended Varieties
	Like sweet apples, the key to successful crabapples for deer and other wildlife lies in the selection of the best variety for your area.  There has been little or no research on crabapple varieties related to deer preference, palatability, production and availability.  Georgia DNR board member, Don Carter of Gainesville, has been experimenting for 10 years with crabapples on his farm in Wilkes County, Georgia. He has had good success with Callaway and Dolgo varieties.  However, like many ornamental cultivars of crabapples, fruits hang on the limbs too long in the fall, resulting in freezing and rotting.  He says if you don’t mind shaking the trees on occasion, these varieties will work well.  However, he has recently switched to native crabapples, which drop earlier, produce large fruit, and are more resistant to rot.  
     Jim Lawson of Lawson’s Nursery (706-893-2141) in Ballground, Georgia agrees.  With over 50 years in the apple business, Jim also rates some crabapples at the top of the deer preference list equal to sweet apples and, of course, easier to grow.  Herein lies another oddity among crabapple species and varieties – deer seem to show definite degrees of preference for some crabs ranging from highly preferred to low palatability, sometimes waiting until all other foods are exhausted, before eating them.  This may be related to variations in tartness or sourness similar to the differences between green and ripe persimmons.
	Jim says some native crabs are susceptible to apple scab, but most are disease-resistant and many don’t even get leaf spot.  His favorites are Craven, Whitney, Hughes and Hislip, but there are many valuable unnamed varieties of native crabs.  He knows of one old unnamed tree that once produced 28 bushels (1,100 lbs) of crabapples!  He has produced 8 or 9 bushels from  6-year-old trees.  Other commercial sources of native crabs include Spandle Nursery (1-800-553-5771) and the National Wild Turkey Federation (1-800-THE-NWTF).  Other suitable species that are commercially available and may be better adapted to the central and northern US include Siberian crab, Mill crab, Japanese flowering crab, Sargent crab, and Toringo crab.
	In summary, select your species or variety carefully.  Go for large fruit, low maintenance, resistance to rot, long ripening season and gradual fruit drop.  By the way, Quality Whitetails readers, someone needs to do some basic research on crabapple for deer. The door is wide open.


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## Woody

Article #9

CRIMSON CLOVER
By:  Kent Kammermeyer


Origin/Description
	Crimson clover may be the most popular annual clover planted for deer in the entire U.S.  Like many other clovers, crimson originated in the Mediterranean region.  It is an important and colorful winter annual legume in the South and the Pacific coast, where winters are mild.  It is also grown in some northern states as a winter or a summer annual.  It has been used for a cover crop as far North as northern Maine.  Do not confuse this plant with the perennial red clover.  Crimson leaves have a more rounded tip and both stem and leaves have more hair than red clover.  Crimson plants have dark green leaves and grow to a height of 1-3 feet.  Brilliant crimson flowers with long heads mature from top to bottom.  Seed is rounded, yellow and about 3 times larger than most other clovers.
Establishment/Mixtures
	As with other agricultural crops, there is no substitute for an accurate soil test.  Although crimson is more acid tolerant than other clovers, (pH range of 5.7-6.4), it will still require liming at many sites and soil types throughout the U.S.  Crimson should be inoculated with the proper strain of Rhizobrium bacteria just before planting.  Note that this is a different strain than that required by other clovers or alfalfa.  Carefully follow the instructions for inoculating seed, as poor inoculation is one of the greatest causes of crimson clover failure in new plantings.  Rapid fall growth is enhanced by planting on a firm, well-prepared seedbed by broadcasting, cultipacking or drilling with a grain drill.  Seed should be covered no more than one-fourth inch deep.  Normal seeding rate is 20 lbs/acre in pure stands and 12 to 15 lbs/acre in mixture with cool season grasses.  Planting dates are August thru October in the South and March in the North.  It will not do well in extreme heat or cold.
	Phosphate and potash are the most important fertilizer elements, but micronutrients and sulfur can also be limiting.  Nitrogen is probably beneficial in total production when crimson is grown in association with grasses.  Consequently (in lieu of a soil test), fertilizer at planting time may be estimated at 300 lbs/acre of 8-24-24 for a pure stand or 300 lbs/acre of 19-19-19 for a mixed stand.
	Crimson can be mixed with rye, wheat or oats if rates of these small grains are held at about 50 lbs/acre.  Ryegrass (20 lbs/acre) is a good companion for a mix, which may reseed the following year.  Adding arrowleaf clover (10 lbs/acre) to any of the above mixes adds variety and longevity to the mix in the South where winter temperatures remain above 10oF.
Management
	The only drawback to crimson clover for deer is that it is a relatively short season annual, which produces well from November through April (excluding mid-winter) in the South and April through June in the North.  However, the wildlife manager can take advantage of this short season in several ways, especially in the South.  Crimson can be plowed under before planting a summer crop of grain sorghum, corn, pearl millet or any grass, which can use the nitrogen fixed by the clover.  Using minimum tillage, these same crops can be planted into crimson clover sod killed or partially killed by herbicides.  The crimson left as mulch for a summer crop provides up to 70 lbs/acre nitrogen for use by grain sorghum or corn.  
In the South, crimson can successfully reseed in September for several successive years by mowing in late August followed by light disking or even no disking, depending on soil conditions (usually heavy clay soil requires no disking, sandy requires disking).  This works especially well when mixed with ryegrass, which will do the same thing.  Check with your local wildlife biologist or county Extension Agent to determine if crimson is adapted to your area and will reseed without disking.
Crimson clover for deer is a cheap, easy, high quality, productive, palatable cool season forage for deer.  It starts fast, withstands heavy continuous grazing and produces a consistent, heavy seed crop with good reseeding potential.


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## Woody

Article #10

WILD GRAPES
By Kent Kammermeyer


	Wild grapes (Vitis spp) are native to the U.S. and found in the wild in all corners except some of the Rocky Mountain states.  Muscadine grapes and leaves found in the Southeast and mid-Atlantic states, are highly preferred by deer.  All other grape leaves are not preferred, but the bunched fruit is high on whitetails list as well as ruffed grouse, wild turkey, black bear, raccoon and many species of non-game animals and songbirds.
	The different species of grapes (over 30) vary in the detail of their broad leaves, in the size and quantity of their fruit and in other characteristics, but all are valuable to wildlife.  Various common names for grape varieties include summer, downy-winter, frost, november, chicken, fox, possum, sugar, red, catbird, calusa, mustang, wine, riverbank, sand, canyon, desert, pilgrim, graybark, and others.
	Most species occur in moist to somewhat dry forests from new forest plantations to mature forests forming arbors on shrubs and in small tree canopies. They occur along forest edges and less often along stream or river banks, spreading by vine growth and animal and gravity-dispersed seeds.  Small soft-skinned grapes mature from June to October in dangling clusters ranging in color from black to white-waxy.  The muscadine is a distinctive grape native to the Southeast and largely grown there.  Vines are strong growers and quite disease-resistant.  Fruit is borne singly or in small clusters of less than a half dozen berries.  Fruit skin is tough and separates from the pulp.  Berries are nearly round, three-fourths to one inch or more in diameter.
	Grapes are highly nutritious with one cup producing 16 grams of carbohydrates in addition to 13 mg calcium, 5 mg magnesium, 9 mg phosphorus, and 176 mg potassium.  This compares favorably with apples and other fruits available to deer.

Varieties/Management

Of course, just as with other wild fruits, deer managers can fertilize wild vines with a complete fertilizer in early spring before blooming begins.  Even with fertilizer, however, the yield of wild grapes varies greatly from year to year with total failures occurring sometimes.  There are few serious pests of wild grapes with the exception of the Japanese beetle, which has a strong partiality for its leaves.  As with apples, pears, blackberries and other fruits that deer relish, I have the feeling that there are deer managers among you who may wish to grow some for the deer (and yourselves).
	If you live from Delaware to the Gulf and westward to Missouri and Texas, your choice should be the muscadine.  The plant may be injured by minimum winter temperatures of 0oF and should not be grown where temperatures frequently go below 10oF.  As with all grapes, muscadines need full sun with good air drainage.  Best results are obtained from well-drained sandy loams with a pH of 5.5 to 6.5.  They will not tolerate low, wet ground.  In the first year apply one-half pound of 10-10-10 after planting and then one-eighth pound of ammonium nitrate in late May and again in early June.  Spread fertilizer in two bands 12 to 14 inches from trunk.  Repeat in the second year, doubling amounts and lengthening bands to four feet.  Thereafter, apply two to four pounds of complete fertilizer each March and one-half pound ammonium nitrate each June in a six-foot long band beginning one foot from the tree.  Annual pruning must be severe to keep new fruiting wood coming and to prevent vines from becoming tangled masses of unproductive wood. 
For further details and literature on other varieties (especially northern adapted), contact your State Extension or County Extension Specialist.  Literature from Cornell College of Agriculture and the University of Minnesota Extension Services has particularly good information on grapes as does the California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc.  Grown properly, there should be plenty enough grapes available for both you and your deer herd!


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## Woody

Article #11

LADINO CLOVER
By:  Kent Kammermeyer

Origin/Description
	There are two types of white clover grown in commercial agriculture, intermediate types often called white Dutch clover and the large or giant types called Ladino white clover or Ladino clover.  The large types trace to ecotypes originally cultivated in Northern Italy and later all around the world.  It is a fairly long-lived perennial in the northern U.S. but is a short-lived perennial or annual in the lower South.  As such, it is arguably the best high quality, low maintenance highly productive perennial available to deer managers in the U.S. (the others are alfalfa and birdsfoot trefoil).
	Ladino is characterized by very leafy plants 8 to 12 inches tall that spread by stolons (runners) and form shallow roots at nodes.  Leaves are smooth (not hairy) and usually marked with a white “V”.  White flowers are clustered into heads and seed are extremely small.  Ladino usually does not reseed well in the lower South.

Adaptation/Production
	Ladino is adapted throughout the eastern U.S. from Canada south through Florida and westward until production becomes limited by low rainfall in the Great Plains.  Although it is not productive on droughty soils, it will survive considerable dry weather.  Once established,ladino is tolerant of moderate soil acidity but soils should be limed if pH is below 6.0.  It is tolerant of wetter soils and is highly responsive to potassium fertilizer.  Under ideal conditions, Ladinos can produce over 10,000 lbs/acre/year of high quality forage.

Establishment/Mixtures
	Ladino grows well in association with cool season perennial grasses such as orchardgrass, fescue, perennial ryegrass, and timothy.  It will generally not do well with bermudagrass or bahiagrass.  In the South, however, I recommend mixing Ladino clover with one of the annual grains such as wheat, rye, or oats because the above cool season perennial grasses generally don’t do well. Inoculation (live bacteria that helps clover fix nitrogen) is critical to seedling survival and soil pH is critical to inoculent survival. Buy pre-inoculated Ladino with the lime coating and be sure soil pH is above 6.0 at planting. Broadcast rate in the South is 5 lbs/acre Ladino mixed with 10 lbs/acre red clover and 50 lbs/acre wheat or rye or oats planted in September.  An alternative month is February for Ladino/red clover/oats mixture.  In the North, plant pre-inoculated Ladino (5 lbs/acre) with red clover (10 lbs/acre) and perennial ryegrass (20 lbs/acre) or orchardgrass (15 lbs/acre).  Plant in September or March or April. Ladino can be mixed with red clover and frost-seeded in late winter.  Fertilize according to soil test.  In lieu of soil test, keep nitrogen levels low (< 30 lbs/acre) to avoid grass competition and apply plenty of phosphorus and potassium (ex:500 lbs/acre of 5-10-15 or 300 lbs/acre 8-24-24).  Ladino clover production will be slow the first fall, but high production will begin the first year in early spring and continue through October or November for several years thereafter.  While the Ladino starts slowly (developing a root system and nodules to fix its own nitrogen), the red clover and the grasses in the recommended mixes provide immediate production for deer forage in the first fall.  These companion plants also act as a nurse crop by taking grazing pressure off of new Ladino seedlings.
	Cultivars in the U.S. which are in widespread use include California Ladino, Osceola, Regal, Tillman and Will.  California and Regal are the major components of Imperial Whitetail 30-06 clover.  I have used all of the above varieties in north Georgia except Will.  Our tests indicate roughly equal production of all but better persistence from Osceola because of drought resistance and higher seed production because of increased flowering.  New cultivars, which are even more persistent, should be available in a year or two.
	Management of Ladino clover is dependent on grass management and weed control.  Ladino planted with perennial grasses should be mowed frequently (2 or 3 times per summer) with the final mowing in late August.  Fertilizer should be applied once per year in September with 300 lbs/acre of 0-20-30.  The same management technique is used for Ladino planted with annual grasses but fewer mowings may be needed, depending on weed competition.  If everything goes well, the second year stand may be a pure mixed stand of Ladino and red clover.  If wild grasses (crabgrass, johnsongrass, bermudagrass, bahiagrass, fescue or ryegrass) become a problem competing with clover, Poast grass-selective herbicide can be used to remove grasses without damaging the clover stand.  Apply when grasses are vigorously growing (April for cool season grasses and June for warm season grasses).
	In my opinion, anytime you can use a perennial for deer plots, you are ahead of the game.  Ladino clovers fit the bill for a productive, high quality perennial plant that is right on the top of the deer dinner list at 30% protein and 60% digestibility.  The near future is exciting as we can look for Ladino cultivars that are more persistent and disease resistant than ever before.


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## Woody

Article #12

FORAGE CHICORY (Cichorium intybus)
By:  Kent Kammermeyer


Origin/Description
	Forage chicory is a broad-leaved perennial herb in the sunflower family that looks similar to common plantain. It can be grown on well-drained or moderately drained soils having medium to high fertility and a pH of 5.5 or greater.  Chicory has good seedling vigor and a deep taproot, which makes it quite drought tolerant.  Though it remains green in a flat rosette through winter (much like dandelion), its productive season is April through October when it can average production of 50 lbs/acre/day, providing valuable spring and summer forage for deer.  If managed properly, chicory produces leafy growth similar in nutrition and mineral content to alfalfa or cool season grasses.  Protein levels range from 10% to 32% depending on growth stage and soil fertility. 
	First introduced in the U.S. in the late 1700s, it has since become a common roadside weed in the central and northern U.S.  During the Civil War, chicory root was used as a coffee substitute and it is still used as a coffee additive in some areas.  Wild chicory produces low forage yields.  Despite being relatively new in the U.S., forage chicory has been used in agriculture for more than 300 years.  It originated in Central Europe but much of the breeding for improved forage has been done in New Zealand.
Adaptation/Establishment
Chicory is widely adapted to most climate conditions in the U.S., with possible exceptions being the deep sands of the southeastern Coastal Plains and Canada (or extreme northern U.S.) where it needs to be sowed by early August to develop a deep root before winter.  In the South, it can be planted in September.  It will grow in a pH as low as 5.0 but prefers one between 6.5 and 7.0.  Seed may be either drilled or broadcast.  Drilling is preferred because of more uniform planting depth.  Chicory seed should be planted 1/4 to 1/2 inches deep.   Cultipacking the seedbed before and after planting is recommended for best seed to soil contact.  Seeded alone, a rate of four to five lbs/acre is recommended.  In mixtures, two to three pounds of chicory along with two-thirds of the usual seeding rate of other forages generally works well. Fertilize according to soil test or use 300 lbs/acre of 19-19-19 at planting.

Varieties/Management
	I do not recommend planting chicory alone.  Because of potential grazing and fertility management problems (including high N needs for good growth), chicory needs to be part of a mixture with a legume and an annual or perennial grass.  One mix would be two lbs/acre chicory, five lbs/acre ladino clover, and 50 lbs/acre wheat (or 20 lbs/acre perennial ryegrass) with the perennial grass being preferred in the North.  Chicory requires a high level of fertility for maximum production.  It is also quite responsive to nitrogen (N) fertilization.  However, if chicory is planted with alfalfa or clover, annual N applications can be restricted to limit the effect the N has on reducing nitrogen fixation of the legume.  Chicory can produce up to 4.5 to 6.0 tons/acre/year dry forage with careful grazing management.  The digestibility of chicory leaves is very high –
generally between 90 and 95%!
	Grazing management can be extremely important with chicory as it is with the brassicas.  Fall-planted chicory should not be heavily grazed until the following spring, hence the mixture of nurse crop plants of legumes and grass.  In spring and summer, chicory grows vigorously and will attempt to produce flower stems in late spring and early summer. Management practices that do not allow the flower stems to exceed a six to 10 inch height in late May, and grazing or mowing to a one and one-half inch stubble height, will reduce the amount of stem bolting (rapid stem growth).  Rest periods longer than 25 days can allow stems to bolt. In other words, if the deer don’t do it for you, delay bolting by periodic mowing.  Once bolting has occurred, the production potential of plants is reduced for the remainder of the grazing season or until the stems are mowed.  Controlled grazing or mowing can sustain a productive chicory stand for up to seven years.
	By far the most popular and widely available forage chicory is Puna from New Zealand.  Other commercially available varieties are Good Hunt and Forage Feast.  Barenbrug Seed Company is the major importer/distributor of forage chicories.


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## Woody

Article #13

FORAGE RAPE (Brassica napus)
By:  Kent Kammermeyer

	Rape is a member of the Brassica family, “a new kid on the block” in deer management.  Brassicas include cabbage, cauliflower, canola, kale, rape, radish, turnip, rutabaga, and swede.  They have been used extensively in Europe, Australia, New Zealand and even Canada, especially for sheep grazing.  Despite being used in Europe for over 600 years, there has been a distinct lack of research on the value, utilization, production and palatability of rape for whitetails in the U.S.  For this reason, until now, I have avoided discussing the Brassicas in Quality Whitetails.  I now have some personal experience with them, found some reliable university extension service data, and thoroughly read Ed Spinnazola’s book “Food Plots…Easy as 1-2-3” (which I highly recommend).
	Annual forage rape can provide livestock producers (and deer managers) with fast growing, high yielding, quality fall pasture.  Forage rape can be very useful for extending the grazing season into November-January when other forages are less productive or dormant.  However, grazing of forage rape can require careful management.  Do not confuse forage rape with oil seed rape or canola.  Forage rape is a short-season leafy Brassica whose stems and leaves are ready to graze 60-90 days after establishment.  It is very important to note here that rape (and all Brassicas) should not be planted more than two consecutive years on the same plot to prevent serious root disease problems.
Adaptation/Establishment
	Rape is adapted to the entire U.S. and Canada.  Cold, drought, and heat tolerant, rape can provide valuable feed when other crops are less productive.  Rape requires good soil drainage and a pH between 5.3 and 6.8.  It does best in pH above 6.0.  Seed should be planted in a firm, moist seedbed.  Rape can be broadcast at four to six lbs/acre or drilled at two to three lbs/acre in six to eight inch rows.  It is important not to plant the seed too deep (less than one-fourth inch).  Many managers are successful top sowing the tiny seed (just like turnips) on bare soil just before an expected rainfall.  For best production and highest quality forage, 70-90 pounds of nitrogen (N)/acre is required, along with about 50-60 lbs/acre of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K).  Consequently, if planted alone, fertilizer with 300 lbs/acre or 19-19-19 or equivalent plus 100-lbs/acre ammonium nitrate.  If mixed with legumes, you can skip the ammonium nitrate.  Properly fertilized, crude protein levels range from 18-30% in rape leaves.  Total digestible nutrients (TDN) average about 70% and dry matter tested about 15%.  This translates to a very high quality, highly digestible forage with a very high moisture content.  Thus, in direct comparison with the legume family (clovers), Brassicas will be somewhat lower quality overall.
Management/Varieties
	Well-fertilized, well-managed stands of rape can produce one and one-half to four tons of forage/acre over a relatively short grazing season from October-January (moving north to south in the U.S.).  As far as management, it is very important to plant rape early – from June in the north through August in the south.  Later planted rape may not fully mature before cold weather and may be subject to early overgrazing.  Reports on deer use of rape nationwide have varied from killed by overgrazing as a small seedling (less than two weeks old) to hardly grazed at all and everything in between (this is where we need more research).  Experts recommend not allowing grazing for 60-80 days for dwarf rape varieties due to potential for over-grazing.  Giant types have higher yields but may be more subject to early overgrazing than dwarfs.  Deer commonly hit rape hard in November and December, removing all leafy forage in a short time.  Livestock producers remove their livestock at this time to allow 30 days or more of regrowth for a second grazing period.  Deer managers obviously cannot do this (allow the plant to recover), so the planting is basically exhausted in late fall or early winter.  For this reason, I recommend strip planting rape next door to clover mixes especially in fields one acre or larger. Mixing rape with clovers, chicory, and/or wheat is another option but it’s tricky. Be very careful on rates, not broadcasting more than one lb/acre rape (its quick, leafy growth produces a lot of shade on nearby seedlings), one lb/acre chicory, five-lbs/acre red clover and 30-lbs/acre wheat.  Good rape varieties include, but are not limited to dwarf essex rape, and rape blends from Pennington Seed Company, Barenburg Seed Company and Wrightson Research in cooperation with BioLogic .  Remember, do not plant rape for more than two consecutive years on the same ground!


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